DUNCAN W. SHAW

AETHER

CAUSE OF GRAVITY

EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT

ELECTROMAGNETISM

QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ENTANGLEMENT

UNITY

My name is Duncan W. Shaw. I am the author of this website and the articles and papers referred to below, except where otherwise stated.

This website provides access to my articles and papers on the cause of gravity, the physical foundation of electromagnetism, quantum mechanics and entanglement, and other topics.

For my background, click HERE.

For access to my articles and papers, click on their TITLES in the text below.

The posting on this website of my articles published by Physics Essays is with the permission of Physics Essays Publications, the owner of the copyright of those articles. The official website of the Physics Essays Publications is http://physicsessays.org.

Table of contents:

1. The Website

2. Aether

3. Cause of Gravity

4. Experimental Support

5. Electromagnetism

6. Quantum Mechanics and Entanglement

7. Unity

8. Other Topics

1. THE WEBSITE

This website is intended to provide a picture of the concepts I have developed resulting from my research into the fundamental mechanics of gravity, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, entanglement, inertia and the structure of matter. The basic premise I have chosen to guide my work is the assumption that there are mechanical explanations for the various phenomena of physics. I have found this assumption to be extremely useful. It has propelled me to visualize and formulate ideas well beyond what I imagined possible when I started on this venture.

My initial aim was to devise and develop a concept of the mechanical cause of gravity. The work on gravity inevitably led me into electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, entanglement and other subjects. Numerous ideas occurred to me, some of which I ultimately rejected after further thought and research. However, some survived the premise of being consistent with mechanical explanations. They are set out below.

2. AETHER

A common theme runs through my articles and papers.  It is the proposition that a medium called aether permeates space and cosmic bodies.  The medium consists of sub-atomic cells that are real substance, not mathematical constructs.

The posited aether is modeled on the form of aether theorized by James Clerk Maxwell in his treatise, The Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, published in 1865.  In this work Maxwell set out his electromagnetic equations that are still in use today, over a century-and-a half later.  He based his equations upon his theory of aether.   He said:

“At the commencement of this paper we made use of the optical hypothesis of an elastic medium through which the vibrations of light are propagated, in order to show that we have warrantable grounds for seeking, in the same medium, the cause of other phenomena as well as those of light.  We then examined electromagnetic phenomena, seeking for their explanation in the properties of the electromagnetic field.  In this way we arrived at certain equations expressing certain properties of the electromagnetic field.”

Maxwell’s aether theory initially met with general acceptance.  However, it subsequently fell into rejection and disuse.  This happened mainly as a result of the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1881 and other experiments that were interpreted as proving that aether does not exist, the concept of quanta (travelling photons) developed by Einstein in papers published in 1905 and 1909, and the development of the quantum mechanics theory in the 1920s.

The articles cited below contend that aether as theorized by Maxwell in fact exists and is an essential element of gravity, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics and entanglement.

Reconsidering Maxwell’s Aether, Phys. Essays 27, 601 (2014) sets out evidence that supports the proposition that aether in fact exists.  The article counters the arguments that led to the general disuse of aether in the science community and cites numerous instances of electromagnetism that are consistent with the proposition that aether is fundamental to the phenomena of electromagnetism.

Aether Explanation of Entanglement, Phys. Essays 31, 29 (2018), proposes that the medium of aether provides the missing physical foundation of the quantum mechanics theory and the physical setting that explains entanglement.  The article provides reasons that support resuscitation of Maxwell’s aether theory (see p.37). 

On Maxwell’s 1865 Theory of Aether: A Step Toward Unity, Phys. Essays 33, 256 (2020) reasons that Maxwell’s form of aether is common ground that underlies gravity, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics and entanglement.

My articles view Maxwell’s aether as structured cells. This is because flexible structures are necessary for the property of elasticity that Maxwell attributes to aether.   Based upon the details of Maxwell’s posited aether set out in The Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and the laws of dynamics applicable to atomic substances, it is inferred that aether cells have the capacity to:

• form a medium; 

• interact with each other and with atomic matter.

• exist in separate and distinct states that include including gaseous and liquid states.

• collide and rebound with each other, that is, have Brownian movements.

• transmit waves;

• expand and shrink, twist and untwist;

• vibrate;

• flow as fluids in its gaseous and liquid states;

• attach to and detach from other matter;

• absorb and transmit energy;

• collectively form patterns (polarize).

Maxwell’s description of aether in The Dynamic Theory of the Electrodynamic Field includes the following passages:

• “We have therefore some reason to believe, from the phenomena of light and heat, that there is an ethereal medium filling space and permeating bodies, capable of being set in motion and of transmitting that motion from one part to another, and of communicating that motion to gross matter so as to heat it and affect it in various ways.”

• “We may therefore receive, as a datum derived from a branch of science independent of that with which we have to deal, the existence of a pervading medium, of small but real density, capable of being set in motion, and of transmitting motion from one part to another with great, but not infinite, velocity.”

• “But when electromotive force acts on a dielectric it produces a state of polarization of its parts similar in distribution to the polarity of the parts of a mass of iron under the influence of a magnet, and like the magnetic polarization, capable of being described as a state in which every particle has its opposite poles in opposite conditions.”

• “Here, then, we perceive another effect of electromotive force, namely, electric displacement, which according to our theory is a kind of elastic yielding to the action of the force, similar to that which takes place in structures and machines owing to the want of perfect rigidity of the connexions.”

• “It appears therefore that certain phenomena in electricity and magnetism lead to the same conclusion as those of optics, namely, that there is an ethereal medium pervading all bodies, and modified only in degree by their presence; that the parts of this medium are capable of being set in motion by electric currents and magnets; that this motion is communicated from one part of the medium to another by forces arising from the connections of those parts; that under the action of these forces there is a certain yielding depending on the elasticity of these connections; and that therefore energy in two different forms may exist in the medium, the one form being the actual energy of motion of its parts, and the other being the potential energy stored up in the connections, in virtue of their elasticity.”

• “Thus, then, we are led to the conception of a complicated mechanism capable of a vast variety of motion, but at the same time so connected that the motion of one part depends, according to definite relations, on the motion of other parts, these motions being communicated by forces arising from the relative displacement of the connected parts, in virtue of their elasticity.  Such a mechanism must be subject to the general laws of Dynamics . . .  .”

• “In speaking of the Energy of the field, however, I wish to be understood literally.  All energy is the same as mechanical energy, whether it exists in the form of motion or in that of elasticity, or in any other form.  The energy in electromagnetic phenomena is mechanical energy.”

• “On our theory it [energy] resides in the electromagnetic field, in the space surrounding the electrified and magnetic bodies, as well as in those bodies themselves, and is in two different forms, which may be described without hypothesis as magnetic polarization and electric polarization, or, according to a very probable hypothesis, as the motion and the strain of one and the same medium.”

3. CAUSE OF GRAVITY

The age-old question of whether there is a mechanical cause of gravity has not yet been answered with a theory that has gained general acceptance in the scientific community. In the words of Richard Feynman in The Feynman Lectures on Physics:

“What about the machinery of it? All we have done is to describe how the earth moves around the sun, but we have not said what makes it go. Newton made no hypotheses about this; he was satisfied to find out what it did without getting into the machinery of it. No one has since given any machinery.”

The articles cited below propose a conceptual model of flowing aether as the physical cause of gravity.

The Cause of Gravity: A Concept, Phys. Essays 25, 66 (2012), proposes the concept of gravity being caused by the ram (pushing) force of aether cells that flow into cosmic bodies and collide with atomic matter, less the pushing force of constituent particles that flow back into space. The one-way-force aspect of gravity is explained by inflowing aether cells being larger than the outflowing particles and therefore more likely to collide with the structure of atomic matter.  The accelerating-force aspect of gravity is explained by convergence of the flow of aether from the wide expanse of space into the relatively small areas occupied by cosmic bodies.  The fact that gravity between the Sun and the Earth appears to be instantaneous action-at-a-distance is explained by the flow of aether from space into the solar system moving directly toward the Sun at the instant when it collides with the Earth and pushes it toward the Sun.. 

Flowing Aether: A Concept, Phys. Essays 26, 523 (2013), adopts the concept of aether having gaseous and liquid states.  The size difference between inflow droplets and outflow cells explains why gravity is a one-way force.  This replaces the previous explanation based upon the size difference between aether cells and their constituent particles.

Outflowing Aether, Phys. Essays 29, 4 (2016), deals with the outflow of aether into space.  It posits that vaporization of incoming liquid aether produces gaseous aether and that gaseous aether travels into space by way of convection and diffusion. A comparison is made with the rain cycle on Earth, that is, the evaporation of water molecules, flow of the molecules by way of diffusion and convection into the atmosphere, condensation of the molecules into droplets, and return to the Earth as rain.

The following is a summary of the flowing aether concept of gravity:

• The gravity process is cyclic. It involves aether from cosmic bodies flowing into space and aether from space flowing into from bodies.

• Outflowing aether and inflowing aether are different states of aether. Outflowing aether consists of aether cells in a gaseous state. Inflowing aether consists of groups of aether cells that have condensed into liquid-state droplets, each of which is comprised of numerous cells.

• Inflowing liquid-state aether collides with matter that is in its path. The collisions push matter toward cosmic bodies. THE INFLOW COLLISIONS ARE POSITED AS THE DIRECT CAUSE OF GRAVITY.

• The heat generated by the collisions of inflowing liquid-state aether with cosmic bodies causes liquid-state aether to vaporize into gaseous state aether.

• Outflowing aether cells are considerably smaller than incoming droplets and tend to pass on through the matter of cosmic bodies. Thus, whatever collisional force outflowing aether has on the matter of cosmic bodies is negligible compared to the collisional force exerted by inflowing aether.

• The predominance of the collisional force of inflowing aether over the collisional force of outflowing aether on the matter of cosmic bodies explains why gravity is a one-way force.

• As aether flows from the expanse of space into the relatively small target of a cosmic body, the flow converges. The convergence causes the flow to accelerate: Bernoulli’s principle and the Venturi effect. This explains why gravity is an accelerating force.

• Gaseous-state aether in space condenses into liquid state aether. A rough analog is gaseous water molecules evaporating from the surface of the Earth, rising into the Earth’s atmosphere, condensing into liquid droplets and returning to the Earth’s surface as rain.

• What causes inflow and outflow? The answer lies in the science of fluid mechanics. Substances that comprise fluids seek equilibrium of concentration. This occurs by way of diffraction, that is, the random movement of gases and liquids from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration. In regard to inflowing aether, the level of concentration of its droplets in the vicinity of cosmic bodies is constantly reduced below its level in space by vaporization of droplets caused by collisions with cosmic bodies. In regard to outflowing aether, its level of concentration of gaseous aether cells in space is constantly reduced by condensation of its aether cells into droplets of liquid aether. Each state of aether seeks its own equilibrium of concentration, with gaseous aether flowing into space and liquid aether flowing toward cosmic bodies. They flow through each other by diffusion and convection, each seeking --but never reaching --its own equilibrium of concentration.

• Similar two-way diffusion of fluids is described in the textbook, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, by G. K. Batchelor, Cambridge University Press, (1970), at pp. 28-29.

• The energy that drives the flows lies in the constant movements of the aether cells and droplets -- their collisions and rebounding –their elasticity – their vibrations -- their Brownian movements.

• Does the energy that causes these movements diminish and run out? Not according to the law of conservation of energy. The energy in space is constantly replenished by the outflow of aether from cosmic bodies in the gravity process and by discharges from nuclear reactions in stars and from supernovae. It is a fair assumption that the aether medium that pervades the universe will remain in overall energy equilibrium.

4. EXPERIMENTAL SUPPORT

In 2020, an article on levitation entitled Floating Under a Levitating Liquid was published in Nature, 585, 48 (2020).  It dealt with a most unusual experiment.  High frequency vibrations caused a layer of glycerol to levitate with a miniature sailboat floating on the topside of the layer of glycerol and a second miniature sailboat floating upside-down on the underside of the glycerol.  A photo of this result, provided by the authors of the levitation experiment is shown below.

The possibility that the levitation experiment might have some application to the flowing aether concept of gravity prompted me to carry out further research. This led to finding a series of papers that deal with experiments involving simulated gravity.  Based upon the results of these experiments (including the levitation experiment), I prepared the article, Experimental Support for the Flowing Aether Concept of Gravity, Phys. Essays, 34, 538 (2021).  The article concludes that the experiments provide evidence that supports the proposition that gravity is a pushing force that is transmitted by vibrations.  Further, the experiments provide observations that are consistent with numerous details of the flowing aether concept.  The observations include the pushing nature of the observed force, Brownian collisions, high speed vibrations, flows of fluids in gaseous and liquid states, transitions between the gaseous and liquid states of fluids, concentration differences, porosity of atomic matter, the one-way elements of the force, its cyclic nature, buoyancy, horizontal phenomena, and stabilization of the force.

5. ELECTROMAGNETISM

As noted, James Clerk Maxwell, in his treatise, The Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, theorized aether as the physical setting for his equations of electromagnetism that are still in use today. While his theory was initially generally accepted,  the advent of the Michelson-Morley experiments, Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity and the Quantum Mechanics theory, subsequently led to his aether falling into disuse.

Reconsidering Maxwell’s Aether, Phys. Essays 27, 601 (2014) contends that the medium of aether as theorized by Maxwell underlies electromagnetism.  This article counters the arguments that led to the disuse of aether in theoretical physics.  It sets out evidence that supports the proposition that aether in fact exists and provides reasons why aether as theorized by Maxwell should be reconsidered as fundamental to electromagnetism.  The article refers to a broad array of electromagnetic phenomena that are consistent with the form of aether theorized by Maxwell being the essential underlying element.

On Maxwell’s 1865 Theory of Aether: A Step Toward Unity, Phys. Essays 33 , 256 (2020), also refers to electromagnetic phenomena that are consistent with Maxwell’s theory of aether.

The phenomena set out in the above articles include the following:

• Electric current. Maxwell’s aether is consistent with electric current being successive interactions  (collisions and displacements) of aether cells within and along a conductor, propelled by electromagnetic force.

• Back surge of electricity.  This is consistent with compressed aether cells snapping back from their distorted shapes into their normal shape when electric current is stopped. Compare this to compressed rubber balls springing back into their normal shape when the compressing force is removed.

• Magnetic fields that surround conductors. Aether cells as elastic structures bulge and shrink in line with the direction of electric current, but also bulge and shrink at right angles thereto, like ordinary rubber balls.  The bulging and shrinking at right angles to the line of the applied force provides a simple explanation of why magnetic fields are orthogonal to electric current.   

• Polarization.   Maxwell’s reference to polarization patterns of iron provides an example of electromotive force forcing aether cells to assume positions vis-à-vis each other into collective patterns. 

• Magnetism.   The action of electromotive force on aether cells is a rational concept of the mechanism of the cause of magnetism. 

• Electromagnetic radiation.   Collisions and interactions of aether cells within the medium of aether is a rational explanation for the transmission of electromagnetic waves. 

• Electromagnetic fields.   Maxwell’s treatise explains electromagnetic fields -- interactions of Maxwell’s parts and connections (aether cells) in his medium of aether.  

• Frequencies and wavelengths.   Structured aether cells that are capable of vibrating and doing so collectively with other aether cells offer a rational explanation for the broad spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. 

• Entanglement. The medium of aether as theorized by Maxwell is the proposed physical setting in which the correlations of electromagnetic characteristics observed in entanglement experiments occur.  (See the Quantum Mechanics and Entanglement section below.)  

• Dark matter. Given Maxwell’s propositions that the medium of aether permeates space and has “small but real density”, then Maxwell’s aether can be seen as a rational candidate for what is presently called dark matter. 

• Dark energy. Given Maxwell’s propositions that the aether medium permeates space and is capable of a “vast variety” of motion that produces electromagnetic phenomena, the energy of these phenomena can be seen as a rational candidate for what is presently called dark energy.

• Induction. Interactions between aether cells and atomic matter present logical means for transferring energy from aether to atomic matter and from atomic matter to aether.  

• Cosmic Background Radiation. The concept that space is occupied by a medium of aether that consists of aether cells that are vibrating with the energy of radiation that is being transmitted through them and the energy of interactions between the cells is consistent with the phenomenon of Cosmic Background Radiation and the observed temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin in space. 

• Interference. Constructive and destructive interference are typical wave phenomena.  It is generally believed that wave phenomena require a medium.  Maxwell’s aether medium is a likely setting for interference that is observed to occur in a vacuum (the absence of atomic matter). 

• Refraction. Refraction is the change of direction of electromagnetic waves when moving from one medium to another.  Refraction is observed when waves enter and leave a vacuum.  One can reason that observations of refraction in a vacuum indicate that the vacuum is in fact occupied by a medium, such as the medium of aether theorized by Maxwell. 

• Lensing. Lensing occurs where light from a distant galaxy or cluster of galaxies bends as it passes by the sides of an intervening galaxy or cluster of galaxies.  The existence of Maxwell’s aether medium provides a rational explanation for the phenomenon of lensing.  

Note:  In the Cause of Gravity section above, it is posited that that aether exists in separate states, including gaseous and liquid states. This proposition is an element of the explanation of why gravity is a one-way force.  In regard to electromagnetism, the proposition of separate states of aether raises the question of what role or roles might each state of aether play.  I am not aware of any papers or experimental data that address this question.  However, the article, On Maxwell’s 1865 Theory of Aether: A step Toward Unity suggests a solution (at p.259): 

“However, it is proposed that gaseous aether plays the dominant role in the phenomena of electromagnetism.  The rational for this assumption is that the individual cells of gaseous aether, viewed as separate entities, are relatively close to each other compared to individual droplets of liquid aether, each one of which is probably composed of immense numbers of aether cells.  The relative closeness of gaseous aether cells to each other makes it more likely that they will play the dominant role in the interactions that comprise the phenomena of electromagnetism.”

6. QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ENTANGLEMENT

These two topics are addressed together because the proposal to explain entanglement poses a solution to the mystery of the quantum mechanics theory lacking an underlying mechanical explanation.  The proposal is that Maxwell’s aether provides a logical underlying concept for both entanglement and the quantum mechanics theory.  This proposal is set out in the articles Aether Explanation of Entanglement, Phys. Essays 31, 29 (2018) and On Maxwell’s 1865 Theory of Aether: A Step Toward Unity, Phys. Essays 33, 256 (2020).

Entanglement

Entanglement is a phenomenon that produces apparently instantaneous communication of electromagnetic characteristics between receptors that are situated at appreciable distances from each other. The above-cited articles consider experiments that observe correlations of electromagnetic characteristics recorded by sensors.  The correlated characteristics include levels of energy, momentum, angles of momentum, spin, vibrations, frequencies and wavelengths, patterns of polarization, rotations and torque.  The experiments have failed to discover the underlying physical cause of entanglement.

The proposal in regard to entanglement relies on Maxwell’s proposition that aether permeates space and cosmic bodies.  From this, it is reasoned that aether permeates the areas in which entanglement experiments have been carried out, including the locations of the sensors and the power sources.  It is posited that the readings of electromagnetic characteristics at the sensors are caused by interactions between the aether medium and the sensors, not by way of communications between the sensors.  The characteristics are those in the medium while the power source is engaged.  They are transmitted as waves through the cells of the aether medium.  When the waves reach the aether cells that are adjacent to the sensors, the waves activate those cells. The cells interact with the sensors and transmit the characteristics to the sensors.  This accounts for the correlation of the characteristics throughout the aether medium that encompasses the experiments.  It follows that sensor readings taken while the power is engaged will be correlated. Thus, the problem of apparent instantaneous communication between the sensors is eliminated. 

Quantum Mechanics Theory

One of the principal characteristics explored by the numerous entanglement experiments is angular momentum, recorded as ”spin up” and “spin down”.  Visualize the power sources that are used in the experiments sending out waves that cause the surrounding aether to rotate around the source, much like a conductor that is carrying electric current causes a magnetic field to rotate around the conductor.  In this setting, it is understandable that receptors, whether in entanglement experiments or in the vicinity of live conductors, would record angular momentum as spin-up or spin-down depending on the locations of the receptors.

The quantum mechanics theory was developed in the 1920s and is generally accepted by present-day physics for its mathematics.  While the mathematics of the quantum mechanics theory has been experimentally verified, there is still no accepted concept of the physical mechanics that underlie   the quantum mechanics theory.  Finding such a concept to fill this gap remains a challenge to present-day theoretical physics.

The proposal that Maxwell’s aether provides the underlying setting for its mechanics is consistent with Maxwell’s theory that the transmission of electromagnetic radiation is by way interactions within the aether medium that pervades the universe.

It will be noted that the proposal is inconsistent with the travelling photons element of quantum mechanics.  The travelling photon approach appears to be on collision course with Maxwell’s waves-through-a-medium theory.  This conflict is addressed in the article, On Maxwell’s 1865 Theory of Aether: A Step Toward Unity, at pp. 263-264.  It is reasoned that particles cannot travel through space without blockage for billions of light-years and that Maxwell’s waves-through–aether must be the correct approach.  While the article does not expressly make this point, it is now suggested that the quantum mechanics theory can remain a logical and consistent theory if it adapts itself to using the cells of Maxwell’s aether in the stead of travelling photons.